| A new vision and role is emerging in the field of school | | | | answer specific questions, not as part of a standard |
| psychology, demanding a revision of the traditional | | | | menu. For example, starting with the hardest item and |
| 'tester/interpreter' to that of skilled and knowledgeable | | | | going down to the easier ones, if the child doesn't pass |
| facilitator/leader in the area of Curriculum Based | | | | the highest level... i.e.- the child may not be able to |
| Decision Making (CBDM) and Response to Intervention | | | | 'produce' the right letter, they may be able to 'identify' |
| (RTI). Curriculum Based Decision Making and problem | | | | the right letter. The definition of a 'task' is the objective. |
| solving assessment is a welcome change in education, | | | | The objective could be related to content, behavior, |
| which may help to address concern in the areas of | | | | conditions or Criteria for Acceptable Performance |
| the psychology/isolation of educators, teacher | | | | (CAP). Fluency - Requires accuracy first. Automaticity |
| development, and trust required in order to successfully | | | | - Maintaining fluency and accuracy in context a task is |
| accomplish real change in an education system, most | | | | more than content. It's all of the components above. If |
| importantly, school improvement and student learning. In | | | | a student makes errors in a timed reading, don't give |
| order to fully grasp the concepts required in the | | | | an error passage just don't time it. Have them practice |
| facilitation/supervision role, psychologists must have the | | | | it multiple times. PRACTICE is more powerful than |
| more broad understanding in the fundamental areas of | | | | FEEDBACK! Caution on giving feedback . . . if you say, |
| the historical perspective, problem solving, curriculum | | | | "Good, you got the answer right", the child may have |
| based decision making teams, tiered intervention | | | | copied the answer from a neighbor so they just |
| systems, using research and reason in education, and | | | | received positive feedback for cheating. Place the |
| getting started. | | | | emphasis on the process rather than the product. A |
| Leadership and Vision: A new role for school | | | | teacher that has to answer the same question over |
| psychologists | | | | and over, teach them the procedures for figuring out |
| Successful schools fulfill individual needs through | | | | the answer themselves. Relate to wearing a coat at |
| organizational goals. Team members are able to | | | | recess, remembering their homework, etc. (Howell, |
| brainstorm for alternative teaching and assessment | | | | 2005) |
| strategies (Glickman, Gordon, and Ross-Gordon, 2004, | | | | Curriculum-Based Decision Making (RTI) TEAMS |
| p. 5) and envision ways to address most, if not all, | | | | In Problem Solving Assessment, an expanded and |
| students within the general education program. Among | | | | important role is also envisioned for the CBDM team. |
| suggested ethics and professional roles for school | | | | Currently, many teams consist of regular educators |
| psychologists reflected in the literature, two in particular | | | | and are used as a "rubber stamp" to send referred |
| suggest direct involvement and facilitation of the | | | | students on for testing. They may lack the procedures, |
| leadership role in Curriculum Based Decision Making | | | | time, or experience to provide meaningful suggestions |
| and Response to Intervention. "Competent practitioners | | | | to one of their peers having problems with an individual |
| are committed to a proactive rather than reactive | | | | student. In PSA, emphasis is placed on providing |
| stance in ethical thinking and conduct. They use their | | | | effective intervention sooner rather than later. After |
| broad knowledge of ethical codes, professional | | | | careful analysis on building resources, the team may |
| standards, and law along with ethical reasoning skills to | | | | consist of regular educators, special educators, |
| anticipate and prevent problems from arising," and | | | | counselors, school psychologists, behavior |
| "skilled practitioners are able to analyze the ethical | | | | interventionists, and the child's parents. |
| dimensions of a situation and demonstrate a | | | | Each member brings his or her own expertise |
| well-developed ability to reason about ethical issues. | | | | regarding the child and education, personality, and |
| They have mastered and make use of a | | | | assessment to the table. Not only does this |
| problem-solving model," (Jacob & Hartshorne, 1992, | | | | arrangement have the chance of providing earlier |
| p. 4). Based on these premises, it stands to reason | | | | intervention, it may cut the costs of later testing and |
| that a competent school psychologist would be the | | | | more importantly, lessen the stigma to students who |
| best candidate in facilitation, leadership, implementation, | | | | go through the verification procedures and emerge |
| and oversight of active and prevalent problem solving | | | | with a Special Education label. In the PSA model, |
| teams, able to lend expertise, guidance, leadership, and | | | | emphasis is placed on students being helped by |
| support to teams in attempting to meet the learning | | | | interventions in the regular classroom if possible. If not, |
| needs of all students. | | | | resources already available to the school can |
| Effective leaders and school systems have | | | | generate much data concerning the student before |
| established learning goals for all of their students, which | | | | referral to the Multidisciplinary team. |
| is consistent with the concept of public education in a | | | | Building Resources |
| Democratic society. As such, these schools are | | | | Analyzing and maximizing the use of building and |
| "always studying teaching and learning, setting | | | | district resources makes sense in terms of providing |
| common priorities, making decisions about internal | | | | quality service to children and their families as well as |
| changes and resource allocations, and assessing | | | | recognizing the need for affordability. Tapping the |
| effects on student learning," (Glickman, et al., 2004, p. | | | | resources that are already available is a crucial step in |
| 6). The new vision for school psychologists will include | | | | the ecological approach to child-focused |
| a purposeful vision of what teaching and learning | | | | decision-making. Utilizing these virtually untapped |
| should be and the collaboration with administrators, | | | | resources may allow for a more cost-effective |
| teachers, and other members of the CBDM team, | | | | approach to interventions, while providing services to |
| acting as the glue utilizing knowledge and interpersonal | | | | the child that may have previously remained |
| skills, along with consultative, behavioral, and technical | | | | unrecognized by the team (UNK, professional seminar |
| skills to help develop and carry out instructional and | | | | series). |
| behavioral improvement plans school-wide, class-wide, | | | | Ecological Assessment |
| and individually (Glickman, et al., 2004, pp. 8-9). | | | | Ethically, a child should receive assessment based on |
| The new role for school psychologists will affect | | | | the notion, "One score does not a label make." |
| student learning and teacher development through | | | | Assessment should include multiple sources, multiple |
| consultation, direct observation and intervention, group | | | | settings, and multiple methods. The active CBDM team |
| professional development, and prereferral activities | | | | should effectively screen those who do not need a full |
| directly related to the problem solving approach | | | | comprehensive assessment. For those students, who |
| (Glickman, et al., 2004, p. 12). Directly addressing the | | | | have been determined by the team to be in need of a |
| difficulty of teachers regarding professional and | | | | full comprehensive assessment, every effort should be |
| personal isolation, frustration, and (sometimes) | | | | made to look at the whole picture. Is this truly a |
| inadequate resources, the CBDM team and school | | | | behavior problem, or could it be an intolerant adult |
| psychologist facilitator-leader can improve learning by | | | | problem? Is this truly a learning problem, or is it a |
| avoiding the isolation of teachers, and "instead | | | | teaching style/learning style mismatch (Curwin & |
| encourage professional dialogue and collaboration." | | | | Mendler, 1988)? Defining the strengths and |
| Since "teaching in effective schools is collective rather | | | | weaknesses of children through the testing process, |
| than individual enterprise," (Glickman, et al., 2004, pp. | | | | and applying this knowledge within the team setting |
| 20-27). | | | | allows for more appropriate interventions to be |
| History | | | | generated (Daly & Glover, 2006). |
| Over the past 25 years, the percentage of students | | | | Prescriptive Teaching |
| placed in programs for Learning Disabilities has | | | | The concept of prescriptive teaching assumes that |
| increased to the point that 50% of all students in | | | | each individual teacher has certain teaching strengths |
| special education are labeled learning disabled (Fuchs, | | | | or certain modes of teaching in which they are most |
| Fuchs, & Speece, 2002). The debate over the | | | | comfortable and that each individual student has |
| discrepancy model for placement in learning disability | | | | certain learning strengths or modes in which he or she |
| programs has been ongoing. Recently, a model utilizing | | | | learns best. The goal of PSA is to discover each of |
| a student's response to intervention as a replacement | | | | these modes and to be flexible in trying to match |
| model has been studied. This approach to identification | | | | teaching style with student learning style. To do this |
| utilizing an intervention responsiveness approach | | | | can help students reach their potential and reduce |
| (Fuchs, Mock, Morgan, & Young, 2003), attempts | | | | frustration of teachers who are doing their best to help |
| to examine levels of student performance, gauge the | | | | the student learn. Be creative with staff usage! Think |
| effects of individual student adaptation to regular | | | | "ours," not "theirs and ours," (Howell, 2005). |
| education interventions and accommodations, and | | | | Multi-tier Models of Services Delivery: What Is a Tier of |
| finally verify the effectiveness of special education | | | | Intervention? |
| programming prior to placement (Fuchs, et al, 2002). | | | | Tiers of Intervention refer to a 3-Tier model in which |
| Regular Education Intervention | | | | instruction is varied over time in response to students |
| General education intervention, previously termed | | | | increasing needs. The 3-Tier Reading Model is |
| "pre-assessment" or "prereferral," is based on the | | | | designed to meet the instructional needs of all students, |
| problem-solving model. CBDM (RTI) teams should be | | | | including those who are slow starters and those who |
| flexible and should be determined by the area(s) of | | | | continue to struggle in the early elementary grades. For |
| concern including age and needs of the child. In addition | | | | students whose response to the first and second tiers |
| to the parents of the child, the team may consist of: | | | | of intervention is not adequate, the third tier provides |
| building principal, referring teacher, regular education | | | | ongoing intervention tailored to meet their specific |
| teachers, special education teachers, counselor, | | | | instructional needs (Vaughn, 2006). |
| transition coordinator, related services personnel, school | | | | Tier One Instruction |
| nurse, Title I or Section 504 coordinator, or others as | | | | Tier One is designed to provide for the majority of |
| deemed appropriate by the team. | | | | students instructional needs and is comprised of three |
| The team bases their interventions on a child's | | | | elements: a research based core program, benchmark |
| strengths and concerns. The team attempts to | | | | testing of students to determine instructional needs at |
| remediate the child's concerns through regular | | | | least three times per year, and ongoing professional |
| education interventions. When a child demonstrates a | | | | development (Beebe-Frankenberger, 2006). |
| need for supports or is struggling behind his or her | | | | Tier Two Intervention |
| peers, the team meets to discuss potential | | | | Tier Two intervention is for students for whom Tier |
| accommodations and supports needed in order to | | | | One instruction appears to be insufficient. Tier Two is |
| best meet the child's needs. A child may not be | | | | for students falling behind on benchmarks skills, and |
| referred for a comprehensive evaluation until such time | | | | requires additional intervention to achieve grade-level |
| that a team has documented the exhaustion of regular | | | | achievement. Tier Two is small-group supplemental |
| education intervention supports utilizing scientifically | | | | instruction in addition to the time allotted for core |
| based interventions, and they suspect that the child | | | | reading instruction. Tier Two may include programs, |
| has a disability or the parent requests the evaluation | | | | strategies, and procedures designed and employed to |
| and the school agrees that the evaluation is | | | | supplement, enhance, and support Tier One. Tier Two |
| appropriate. | | | | instruction starts as soon as possible after students |
| Identification and Placement | | | | have been identified as falling behind grade |
| USC Sec 300. 308 and 300.540 of the Individuals with | | | | expectations through benchmark testing. After the first |
| Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), mandates that the | | | | 10- to 12-week round of Tier Two instruction, a |
| determination of whether or not a child suspected of | | | | decision should be made about the student's |
| having a specific learning disability qualifies for special | | | | instructional needs by the CBDM (RTI) team (Vaughn, |
| education be made by the child's parents and a team | | | | 2006). |
| of qualified professionals, which must include the child's | | | | Tier Three Intervention |
| regular education teacher, at least one person qualified | | | | Tier Three intervention is intensive, strategic, |
| to conduct individual diagnostic examinations and | | | | supplemental and often considerably longer in duration |
| interpret such information such as a school | | | | than the 10 to 20 weeks of supplemental instruction |
| psychologist, speech language pathologist, or remedial | | | | provided in Tier Two. Tier Three is specifically |
| reading teacher. Prior to the most recent | | | | designed and customized small-group reading |
| reauthorization, the team was required to determine if | | | | instruction that is extended beyond the time allocated |
| a suspected student demonstrated a severe | | | | for Tiers One and Two (Beebe-Frankenberger, 2006). |
| discrepancy between ability and achievement. Meaning | | | | Using Research and Reason in Education |
| the child's achievement in math, reading, writing, or | | | | Schools are now required to demonstrate the use and |
| language was significantly different than the child's | | | | documentation of scientifically based instruction (NCLB). |
| measure of ability (commonly referred to as IQ score). | | | | As professionals, teachers can learn to recognize and |
| The reauthorization of IDEA, removed the requirement | | | | identify scientifically based practice by using basic |
| to show a discrepancy between ability and | | | | research concepts. Educators are informed by formal |
| achievement using an IQ test. This does not indicate | | | | scientifically based research via the archival |
| that ability testing will be banned, but there will be a | | | | research-based knowledge like that found in |
| strong possibility that psychologists will forgo this piece | | | | peer-reviewed educational journals. Educators may |
| of the comprehensive evaluation in certain | | | | gain continued exposure to scientific research through |
| circumstances. USC 300.307(a)(2) of the IDEA states, | | | | professional journals, graduate courses, and becoming |
| "the criteria adopted by the State must permit the use | | | | lifelong learners (Stanovich, & Stanovich, 2003). |
| of a process based on the child's response to | | | | The scientific criteria for evaluating a credible source |
| scientific, researched based intervention." | | | | include: |
| Response to Intervention Models | | | | · The publication of findings in refereed journals |
| Critics of traditional ability testing question the | | | | (scientific publications that employ a process of peer |
| appropriateness of using child-based characteristics for | | | | review), |
| treatment matching rather than classroom | | | | · the duplication of the results by other |
| accommodation and varied instructional interventions. | | | | investigators, and |
| Response to Instruction models focus on the context | | | | · a consensus within a particular research |
| of learning and instruction as a potential reason for the | | | | community on whether there is a critical mass of |
| child's difficulties rather than automatically considering | | | | studies that point toward a particular conclusion. |
| the problems to be a "child's deficit" (Fuchs, et al., 2003). | | | | (Stanovich, & Stanovich, 2003) |
| Over the years we have evolved a process through | | | | Empiricism is considered to be the practice of relying |
| which we try to find the student entitled for funding | | | | on observation to gain knowledge. However, |
| first, and then we get around to developing an | | | | empiricism alone will not lead to scientific knowledge. |
| appropriate educational program to meet her needs. | | | | Scientific knowledge is gained through introducing |
| That is backwards! Because need is one criteria for | | | | theories, which are tested empirically (theory - |
| entitlement, finding a solution to the student's learning | | | | prediction - testing - theory modification). |
| problems has to come first, only then can a team | | | | Objectivity means "nature speaks for itself." In other |
| brainstorm a solution. A team cannot draw conclusions | | | | words, experimentation is reported honestly and |
| about need from evidence of a disability (the second | | | | without bias. Objectivity is, therefore, critical to the |
| criterion for entitlement). This is Curriculum Based | | | | process of gaining scientific knowledge. The scientific |
| Decision Making (CBDM) (Howell, 2005). | | | | criteria for peer review and the replication of findings |
| Shifting Our View of the Problem: The Problem is not | | | | provides the checks and balance regarding the |
| the Disability! | | | | objectivity of the scientific process. In education, it is |
| It used to be assumed that recognition of the disability | | | | sometimes difficult to obtain a "cut and dried" outcome |
| did tell us something about need. That was because, | | | | regarding the efficacy of a program. Therefore, a |
| as it developed, the field of special education retained | | | | professional judgment call is made utilizing the |
| many of the assumptions that go with medical | | | | "preponderance of evidence" (the principle of |
| treatment. These included that the: client is ill; cause of | | | | converging evidence). Research is considered "highly |
| the illness must be determined before treatment can | | | | convergent" when a series of outcomes consistently |
| be started; evaluation focuses on the client; treatment | | | | supports one theoretical approach to instruction. Clearly |
| is directed at the client; treatment often requires | | | | there are some areas of educational research lacking |
| modifications in expectations because the; underlying | | | | in research-based consensus. Even when teachers |
| pathology cannot be corrected; and problem is | | | | are well aware of the scientific criteria for evaluating a |
| interactive (Howell, 2005). | | | | credible source, the literature often fails to provide |
| The central question is not: "What about the learner is | | | | clear and convincing direction. Educators will need to |
| causing the performance discrepancy?" | | | | utilize their own strong reasoning processes gained |
| The central question is: "What about the interaction of | | | | through teaching experiences. Looking into an opinion |
| the curriculum instruction, learner and learning | | | | article, an educator might consider if the author used |
| environment should be altered so that the child will | | | | peer-reviewed research on which to base their opinion. |
| learn?" (Howell, 2005) | | | | Is the author referring to more than one reference for |
| The emphasis of our inquiry is the target of the | | | | the basis of their opinion? Do the authors cite the |
| educational interaction --- learning. And learning is | | | | works of other researchers or based their opinions |
| illustrated with measures that show us how the | | | | solely on their own works? We can use the same |
| student's behavior is changing in the areas (academic, | | | | evaluative techniques applied towards presenters at |
| social or task-related) in which he or she is being | | | | workshops or conferences (Stanovich, & |
| taught (Daly & Glover, 2006). | | | | Stanovich, 2003). |
| The Shift in Focus: | | | | Teachers may also utilize the "connectivity principle" to |
| We must become immediately interested in measures | | | | a new teaching method. Is it linked to peer reviewed |
| which directly sample the curriculum and that are | | | | research? Is it based on scientifically proven theories |
| sensitive to instruction. That is because the emphasis | | | | or related to other scientifically based instruction? Even |
| of our inquiry is the target of . . . | | | | with the total absence of empirical evidence, there |
| Domains of Influence in Problem Solving: | | | | could still be a theoretical link to the consensus in the |
| · Instruction - How we teach what is being | | | | curriculum literature supporting the method (Stanovich, |
| taught | | | | & Stanovich, 2003). |
| · Curriculum - What is being taught | | | | Systems Thinking |
| · Environment - Context where learning is to | | | | Implementing CBDM requires a shift in thinking from |
| occur | | | | "ours and yours" (general education and special |
| · Learner - Characteristics intrinsic to the | | | | education students) to that of an integrated system |
| individual in relation to the concern (Howell, 2005) | | | | designed to serve all students. It is a belief system in |
| Problem Solving: Shifting the Emphasis from | | | | which everyone agrees that students' problems can |
| Measurement to Evaluation | | | | be defined and changed through scientifically based |
| Evaluation is a process of comparison that leads | | | | instruction and intervention. Enabling learning rather than |
| ultimately to the drawing of conclusions and the making | | | | a "rubber stamp" towards special education placement |
| of judgments. To make good decisions we need to | | | | is the goal. Knowing why learning problems occur and |
| elevate the role of evaluation over measurement. | | | | figuring how to solve them is the goal. Intervention is |
| Stressing the dynamic nature of the problem-solving | | | | derived from gathering data and analyzing the results, |
| process does this. It is also done by seeing to it that | | | | and assessments will serve multiple purposes, which |
| measures (in the form of reviews, interviews, | | | | will lead to appropriate instructional decisions for |
| observations and tests) are given to answer specific | | | | children (Allison, 2006). |
| questions, not as part of a standard menu (Howell, | | | | Big Ideas |
| 2005). | | | | · Decide what is important for students to |
| Shifting the focus from unalterable to alterable | | | | know. |
| variables: | | | | · Teach what is important. |
| Moving the focus from unalterable variables to | | | | · Keep track of how students are doing. |
| alterable variables allows educators to get information | | | | · Make changes according to the results you |
| about things that they can do something about (Howell, | | | | collect. (Howell, 2005) |
| 2005). | | | | Guiding Principles |
| Unalterable Variables-things that cannot be altered | | | | Children's needs should be met in the general |
| through instruction (i.e., IQ, physical/medical status, lives | | | | educational setting and with the general education |
| with a single parent, prior knowledge); however, | | | | curriculum. Proactive instruction should be provided |
| unalterable does not mean unimportant! | | | | before concerns arise; no "wait to fail." Teachers need |
| Alterable Variable - something that can be altered | | | | adequate tools, a variety of research-based strategies, |
| through instruction. (Howell, 2005) | | | | support, and resources in order to meet the needs of |
| "Education is a social process. Education is growth. | | | | all students. Quality professional development is |
| Education is not a preparation for life; education is life | | | | essential to effect systemic change and improve |
| itself." | | | | student learning. Administrative and teacher leadership |
| John Dewey | | | | teams are needed (Glickman, Gordon, Ross-Gordon, |
| The Problem Solving Approach (PSA) | | | | 2004, pp. 208-209). Parents are vital members of the |
| The rationale behind the CBDM team, is the process | | | | team. Each school has a unique culture, set of |
| of moving toward problem solving assessment. What | | | | resources, and needs requiring a tailored system of |
| is Problem Solving Assessment? Problem Solving | | | | decision-making. |
| Assessment (PSA) is an educational assessment | | | | Foundational Problem Solving |
| model that seeks to maximize the resources available | | | | There is more than one way to implement an RTI |
| to schools while at the same time minimizing costs. | | | | model; however, it must be done with integrity and |
| Many of the resources available to schools reside in | | | | fidelity! Identify and support key people within your |
| the school, in the home, and in the larger community. | | | | school/district, the "movers and shakers," and develop |
| Traditionally these resources have remained untapped. | | | | a plan on the use and/or need for resources (Allison, |
| Lacking are the coordination, organization, and attitude | | | | 2006). School psychologists have an even greater |
| necessary to utilize this pool of potential solutions to | | | | opportunity to make meaningful and lasting impact on |
| learning problems. PSA is an education model that | | | | student learning by understanding and embracing the |
| seeks to empower individuals within schools and | | | | new vision for facilitation and leadership in RTI, as the |
| communities to help provide solutions to the | | | | future of our profession. By becoming a leader in |
| educational problems of our students. | | | | CBDM, we have the ability to move beyond the |
| With the greater social and legal stress placed upon | | | | traditional tester, to that of a collaborative, supportive, |
| schools for increased documentation, this model allows | | | | integrated part of a team dedicated solely to improving |
| schools to demonstrate greater accountability. Within | | | | the educational experience for all students. |
| this model, regular and special educators are seen as | | | | References |
| partners who cooperate, beginning at the prereferral | | | | Allison, R. (2006, September). Response to Intervention: |
| level and beyond to help children and families. In PSA, | | | | Critical components andimportant considerations. |
| students having problems that affect their education | | | | Professional Development Seminar presented at |
| are seen in the context of their whole environment. | | | | Educational Service Unit 8, Neligh, NE. |
| The difficulties they experience are not seen as solely | | | | Beebe-Frankenberger, M. Response to instruction (RTI): |
| residing in the child. Instead, an ecological view is | | | | A multi-tiered assessmentprocess to systematically |
| encouraged. Student identification in terms of disability | | | | target AYP. Retrieved December 12, 2006 from: |
| labeling becomes less of an issue as more emphasis is | | | | [ |
| placed on finding solutions for individual learning | | | | Curwin, R. & Mendler, A. N. (1988). Discipline with |
| problems. These solutions emphasize not only | | | | dignity resource handbook. |
| maximizing student strengths and minimizing | | | | Bellevue, WA: Bureau of Education and Research: |
| weaknesses, but also trying to match these strengths | | | | Retrieved October 10, 2005 from: [ |
| with school/district strengths and resources (UNK, | | | | Daly, E. & Glover, T. (2006). Response to |
| professional seminar series). | | | | Intervention. Retrieved December 17, 2006from: [ |
| Problem Solving Process | | | | Ed%20Daly%20Todd%20Glover%20UNL.pdf |
| · Define the Problem (screening and diagnostic | | | | Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., & Speece, D.L., (2002). |
| assessments) | | | | Treatment validity as a unifyingconstruct for identifying |
| What is the problem and why is it happening? | | | | learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 25, |
| · Develop a plan: Goal setting and planning | | | | 33-45. |
| What are we going to do? | | | | Fuchs, D., Mock, D., Morgan, P.L., & Young, C.L., |
| · Implement the Plan (With integrity and fidelity) | | | | (2003). Responsiveness-to- |
| Carry out the intervention. | | | | Intervention: Definitions, evidence, and implications for |
| · Evaluate (Progress monitoring and | | | | the learning disabilities construct. Learning Disabilities |
| assessment) | | | | Research & Practice, 18, 157-171. |
| Did our plan work? | | | | Glickman, C.D., Gordon, S.P., & Ross-Gordon, J.M. |
| If not? | | | | (2004). SuperVision andinstructional leadership: A |
| · Begin the process all over again. (Howell, | | | | developmental approach, 6th ed. Boston, MA: |
| 2005) | | | | Pearson Education, Inc. |
| Curriculum-Based Measurement | | | | Howell, K. (2005, October) Response to Intervention |
| Curriculum-Based Measurement is based on the | | | | and curriculum based decision-making. Professional |
| principle that schools should test students over what is | | | | Development Seminar presented at Kearney, NE. |
| actually taught in the classroom instead of relying | | | | Jacob, S. & Hartshorne, T. (1992). Ethics and law |
| solely upon national achievement tests to measure | | | | for school psychologists. Brandon, |
| student progress. It can provide performance data | | | | Vermont: Clinical Psychology Publishing Co. Inc. |
| regarding which areas of the actual curriculum are | | | | Pre-referral Intervention Teams, Multidisciplinary Teams, |
| being learned. This method should be balanced in | | | | and Section 504: How can wepossibly do it all? |
| combination with nationally normed/standardized | | | | Workshop of the Professional Development Seminar |
| testing. CBA may provide a fairer, less culturally biased, | | | | Series sponsored by the University of Nebraska @ |
| easy, cost effective, quick overview of a student's | | | | Kearney, Department of Counseling and School |
| performance. The results also have more meaning to | | | | Psychology. |
| the teachers and parents as it is directly related to the | | | | Response to Intervention policy considerations and |
| student, curriculum used, and teaching style of the | | | | implementation, |
| classroom teacher involved. Standardized tests | | | | Alexandria, VA: NASDSE, pp. 19-20. Retrieved |
| provided an overview of the student, which will have | | | | December 17, 2005 from: |
| meaning from state to state across the country (UNK, | | | | Stanovich, P.J. & Stanovich, K.E. (2003). Using |
| professional seminar series). | | | | research and reason in education. |
| Curriculum-Based Assessment/Evaluation: Shifting the | | | | Portsmouth, New Hampshire: RMC Research |
| Emphasis from Measurement to Assessment | | | | Corporation. Retrieved October 20, 2005 from: |
| Assessment/evaluation is a process of comparison | | | | Stanovich_Color.pdf |
| that leads ultimately to the drawing of conclusions and | | | | Vaughn, S. (2006). Education for students with reading |
| the making of judgments. To make good decisions we | | | | learning disabilities: Whatmakes it 'special.' Center on |
| need to elevate the role of evaluation over | | | | Instruction-Special Education, University of |
| measurement. Stressing the dynamic nature of the | | | | Texas. Retrieved December 31, 2006 from: [ |
| problem-solving process does this. It is also done by | | | | Vaughn_July_2006.pdf |
| seeing to it that measures (in the form of reviews, | | | | Vaughn, S. (2006). A three-tier model for preventing |
| interviews, observations and tests) are given to | | | | reducing reading disabilities. |